Octopus Facts Habitat, Behavior, Diet

Octopuses (Octopus spp.) are a family of cephalopods (a subgroup of marine invertebrates) known for their intelligence, their uncanny ability to blend into their surroundings, their unique style of locomotion, and their ability to squirt ink. They are some of the most fascinating creatures in the sea, found in every ocean in the world, and every continents coastal waters. Fast Facts: Octopus Scientific Name: Octopus, Tremoctopus, Enteroctopus, Eledone, Pteroctopus, many othersCommon Name: OctopusBasic Animal Group: InvertebrateSize: 1 inch–16 feetWeight: 1 gram–600 poundsLifespan: One to three yearsDiet:  CarnivoreHabitat: Every ocean; coastal waters in every continentPopulation: There are at least 289 species of octopuses; population estimates are not available for anyConservation Status: Not listed. Description The octopus is essentially a mollusk that lacks a shell but has eight arms and three hearts. Where cephalopods are concerned, marine biologists are careful to distinguish between arms and tentacles. If the invertebrate structure has suckers along its entire length, its called an arm; if it only has suckers at the tip, its called a tentacle. By this standard, most octopuses have eight arms and no tentacles, while two other cephalopods, cuttlefish and squids, have eight arms and two tentacles. All vertebrate animals have one heart, but the octopus is equipped with three: one that pumps blood through the cephalopods body (including the arms), and two that pump blood through the gills, the organs that enable the octopus to breathe underwater by harvesting oxygen. And theres another key difference, too: The primary component of octopus blood is hemocyanin, which  incorporates atoms of copper, rather than hemoglobin, which incorporates atoms of iron. This is why octopus blood is blue rather than red. Octopuses are the only marine animals, apart from whales and pinnipeds, that demonstrate primitive problem-solving and pattern recognition skills. But whatever kind of intelligence these cephalopods possess, its different from the human variety, probably closer to a cat. Two-thirds of an octopuss neurons are located along the length of its arms, rather than its brain, and theres no convincing evidence that these invertebrates are capable of communicating with others of their kind. Still, theres a reason so much science fiction (such as the book and movie Arrival) feature aliens vaguely modeled on octopuses. Octopus skin is covered by three types of specialized skin cells that can quickly change their color, reflectivity, and opacity, allowing this invertebrate to easily blend in with its surroundings. Chromatophores are responsible for the colors red, orange, yellow, brown, and black; leucophores mimic white; and iridophores are reflective, and thus ideally suited to camouflage. Thanks to this arsenal of cells, some octopuses can make themselves indistinguishable from seaweed. Fleetham Dave / Perspectives / Getty Images Behavior A bit like an undersea sports car, the octopus has three gears. If its in no particular hurry, this cephalopod will walk lazily with its arms along the ocean bottom. If its feeling a bit more urgent, it will actively swim by flexing its arms and body. And if its in a real hurry (say, because it has just been spotted by a hungry shark), it will expel a jet of water from its body cavity and zoom away as fast as it possibly can, often squirting a disorienting blob of ink at the same time. When threatened by predators, most octopuses release a thick cloud of black ink, composed primarily of melanin (the same pigment that gives human beings their skin and hair color). This cloud is not simply a visual smoke screen that allows the octopus to escape unnoticed; it also interferes with predators sense of smell.  Sharks, which can sniff small droplets of blood from hundreds of yards away, are especially vulnerable to this type of olfactory attack. Marevision / age fotostock / Getty Images Diet Octopuses are carnivores, and the adults feed on small fishes, crabs, clams, snails, and other octopuses. They typically forage alone and at night, pouncing on their prey and wrapping it in the webbing between their arms. Some octopuses use venom of varying levels of toxicity, which they inject into its prey with a beak similar to a birds; they can also use their beaks to penetrate and crack hard shells. Octopuses are night hunters, and they spend some of their daylight time in dens, generally holes in shell beds or another substrate, vertical shafts sometimes with multiple openings. If the sea floor is stable enough to permit it, they can be as deep as 15 inches or so. Octopus dens are engineered by a single octopus, but they can be reused by later generations and some species are co-occupied by male and female for a few hours.   In laboratory situations, octopuses build dens out of shells (Nautilus, Strombus, barnacles), or artificial terracotta flower pots, glass bottles, PVC tubes, custom blown glass—basically, whatever is available.   Some species have den colonies, clustered in a particular substrate. The gloomy octopus (O. tetricus) lives in communal groups of about 15 animals, in situations where there is ample food, many predators, and few opportunities for den sites. Gloomy octopus den groups are excavated into shell middens, a pile of shells built by the octopuses from prey.   Reproduction and Offspring Octopuses have very short lives, between one and three years, and they are dedicated to raising the next generation. Mating occurs when the male approaches the female: One of his arms, typically the third right arm, has a special tip called hectocotylus which he uses to transfer sperm to the females oviduct. He can fertilize multiple females and females can be fertilized by more than one male.   The male dies shortly after mating; the female looks for a suitable den site and spawns a few weeks later, laying the eggs in festoons, chains which are attached to rock or coral or to the walls of the den. Depending on the species, there can be hundreds of thousands of eggs, and before they hatch, the female guards and cares for them, aerating and cleaning them until they hatch. Within a few days, after they hatch, the mother octopus dies.   Some benthic and littoral species produce a smaller number of larger eggs which house a more highly developed larva. The tiny eggs produced in the hundreds of thousands begin life as plankton, basically, living in a plankton cloud. If they are not eaten by a passing whale, the octopus larva feeds on copepods, larval crabs, and larval seastars, until they are developed enough to sink down to the bottom of the ocean.   An octopus mother fiercely guards her den.   Getty Images Species There are nearly 300 different species of octopus identified to date—more are being identified every year. The largest identified octopus is the giant Pacific octopus (Enteroctopus dofleini), the full-grown adults of which weigh about 110 pounds or so and have long, trailing, 14-foot-long arms and a total body length of about 16 feet. However, there is some tantalizing evidence of larger-than-usual Giant Pacific octopuses, including one specimen that may have weighed as much as 600 pounds. The smallest (so far) is the star-sucker pygmy octopus (Octopus wolfi), which is smaller than an inch and weighs less than a gram. Most species average the size of the common octopus (O. vulgaris) which grows to between one and three feet and weighs 6.5 to 22 pounds. This bioluminescent pelagic octopus is in the Red Sea at night. Jeff Rotman/Photolibrary/Getty Images Conservation Status None of the octopi are considered endangered by either the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) or the ECOS Environmental Conservation Online System. The IUCN has not listed any of the octopuses. Sources Anderson, Roland C., Jennifer A. Maher, and James B. Wood. Octopus: The Oceans Intelligent Invertebrate. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, 2010.  Bradford, Alina. Octopus Facts. Live Science / Animals, June 8, 2017.Caldwell, Roy L., et al. Behavior and Body Patterns of the Larger Pacific Striped Octopus. PLOS One 10.8 (2015): e0134152. Print.Courage, Katherine Harmon. Octopus! The Most Mysterious Creature in the Sea. New York: Penguin Group, 2013.  Leite, T. S., et al. Geographic Variability of Octopus Insularis Diet: From Oceanic Island to Continental Populations. Aquatic Biology 25 (2016): 17-27. Print.Lenz, Tiago M., et al. First Description of the Eggs and Paralarvae of the Tropical Octopus, Octopus Insularis, under Culture Conditions. BioOne 33.1 (2015): 101-09. Print.Octopuses, Order Octopoda. The National Wildlife Federation.Octopus Fact Sheet. World Animal Foundation.Scheel, David, et al. Octopus Engineering, Intentional and Inadvertent. Communicative Integrative Biology 1 1.1 (2018): e1395994. Print

Case Study Of Nike, A Global Environment, Transportation...

Nowadays, businesses must think big. It is not enough to be the best in the city or even the country. The goal should be to go global and take advantage of the opportunities offered by the phenomenon of globalization and be part of the â€Å"global market†. This is rather ambitious but some companies have stepped out their country’s borders and have gained global recognition. This has been possible mainly thank to the important advances made in the 20th century, especially in the area of communication, transportation and new technologies. These advances have allowed many companies to extend their activities from a local scope to one of global scale, but this also means having to take more responsibility and act correctly. Globalized companies†¦show more content†¦It also had factories in China. In 1986, Nike expanded its product line to include apparel. Always following its business model: to market high-end consumer products manufactured in cost-efficient supp ly chains (Zaked, 2004), Nike requested its suppliers to open up manufacturing plants in Indonesia, China and Vietnam and helped its lead vendors establish an extensive network of foot wear factories throughout Southeast Asia where they could find cheap labor. But this expansion strategy put Nike under the scrutiny of groups that accused Nike of taking advantage of low wages and poor working conditions of factories in those lower-cost countries in order to increase their profits. Accusations of child exploitation, abusive treatment to workers and attempts of paying less than the minimum daily wage to workers were a consequence of Nike’s expansion strategy. †¢ Explain what the positive and negative impacts of this strategy were. One positive impact of Nike’s expansion strategy was that the location of the production facilities were close to raw materials and cheap labor sources. This allows for cheaper production (Enderle et al, 2000). Also, with its expansion into China, they tried to enter the clothing market. With nearly 1.357 billion Chinese people, they could have huge profits from that market alone (Wilsey and Lichtig, n.d.). As negative impacts, Nike received accusations of child exploitation, and manyShow MoreRelatedCase Study Of Nike, A Global Environment, Transportation And New Technologies1021 Words   |  5 Pagesor even the country. The goal should be to go global and take advantage of the opportunities offered by the phenomenon of globalization and be part of the â€Å"global market†. This is rather ambitious but some companies have stepped out their country’s borders and have gained global recog nition. This has been possible mainly thank to the important advances made in the 20th century, especially in the area of communication, transportation and new technologies. These advances have allowed many companiesRead MoreNike in China3150 Words   |  13 PagesExecutive Summary Overview Nike is the market leader in athletic shoes in the United States. The Oregon based company has always utilized offshore facilities in low-income countries to produce at minimal costs followed by importation into predominantly the US for sales. Nike is quick to divest from emerging markets as costs rise and has recently signed short term production contracts with a long term strategy of production in China. Unlike Nike’s previous global endeavors, the political and culturalRead MoreUnder Armour Is Gaining Market Share And Challenging Nike2043 Words   |  9 Pages Abstract Under Armour is gaining market share and challenging Nike in the sports apparel industry. However, Under Armour is having major issues with inventory management and managing cost. Inventory cost has increased steadily over the past three years and is now at the point where it is out weighing revenue. UNDER ARMOUR: CHALLENGING NIKE IN SPORTS APPAREL 3 CASE DESCRIPTION Under Armour, Inc., was founded in1996, by Kevin Plank, by a former University of Maryland footballRead Moremarketing strategy4037 Words   |  17 PagesModule Code: MKT 306 Nike – A report on Nike trainers from Nike Inc. and its market analysis in the UK. Submitted to University of Sunderland Submitted by: BIJAY GURUNG Student code: 109122858 BA (HONS) BUSINESS MANAGEMENT (YEAR 3) WORD COUNT: 3498 (excluding executive summary, references and relevant appendices) Table of Contents 1. Executive Summary†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.pg.3 2. Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..pg.4 3. Marketing Audit of Nike Inc. UK†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Read MoreAn Evaluation Of The Business Lego2310 Words   |  10 Pageswill be elaborated on and portrayed how they are incorporated throughout various businesses. Operations processes and strategies will be exemplified throughout the report and broken down further into the supply chain management, outsourcing and technology of a business. An evaluation of the business Lego will be presented and deliver how the business examines CSR and why consumers prefer their business compared to other leading competitors. 2.0 CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 2.1 LEGAL COMPLIANCERead MoreCarbon Emissions And Its Effect On The Environment1733 Words   |  7 Pagesemission and how to create efficiency transportation is a critical thing that enterprise needs to concern. According to HM’s annual reports, more than 50% percent of carbon emissions are from their transportation between the factories and stores, therefore, choosing more sustainable ways in transportation is one of a good resource to reduce the hurt for the environment. There are highly percentages of their shipments shipping via railway or sea, because sea transportation and train are relatively unpollutedRead MoreNike Inc. Case Study2161 Words   |  9 PagesNike, Inc. : Case Study in Operations Management MGT 441 Prepared for: Dr. Davidson, Concord University Prepared by: Jeremiah Nelson Johnathan Coleman Emily O’Dell December 4th, 2012 Introduction Low-cost, time-efficient manufacturing of goods is a key feature of a successful production company in today’s competitive global economy. Operations management, often abbreviated in the business world as OM, is defined as â€Å"...the set of activities that creates value in the form of goodsRead MoreNike- Managerial Case Study4914 Words   |  20 PagesNIKE Business Case Study Management Theory (BUS830-13) Submitted to: Dr. J. Saleeby Done by: Rola El Cheikh 201005281 Thursday, December 23, 2010 Executive Summary Nike hit the ground running in 1962. Originally known as Blue Ribbon Sports, the company focused on providing high quality running shoes designed especially for athletes by athletes, at competitive prices. Today, Nike is the worlds leading maker of athletic shoes, equipment and apparel. Nike has invested highly on marketingRead MoreNike- Managerial Case Study4930 Words   |  20 PagesNIKE Business Case Study Management Theory (BUS830-13) Submitted to: Dr. J. Saleeby Done by: Rola El Cheikh 201005281 Thursday, December 23, 2010 Executive Summary Nike hit the ground running in 1962. Originally known as Blue Ribbon Sports, the company focused on providing high quality running shoes designed especially for athletes by athletes, at competitive prices. Today, Nike is the worlds leading maker of athletic shoes, equipment and apparel. Nike has invested highly on marketing. It hasRead MoreImpact Of Globalization On The World1787 Words   |  8 PagesThis report will discuss the multiple roles of globalization in providing and transferring new and advanced technologies which, despite their significance, can severely damage the environment. This report will also be covering multiple aspects such as what we mean by globalization as a anomaly of changes. What technologies mean. What are the factors of globalization that supported it and what are the variables of it. First the term â€Å"globalization† must be defined. There are various definitions of Case Study Of Nike, A Global Environment, Transportation... Nowadays, businesses must think big. It is not enough to be the best in the city or even the country. The goal should be to go global and take advantage of the opportunities offered by the phenomenon of globalization and be part of the â€Å"global market†. This is rather ambitious but some companies have stepped out their country’s borders and have gained global recognition. This has been possible mainly thank to the important advances made in the 20th century, especially in the area of communication, transportation and new technologies. These advances have allowed many companies to extend their activities from a local scope to one of global scale, but this also means having to take more responsibility and act correctly. Globalized companies have more demands to innovate and work in a new manner, in a constant changing environment, in which stakeholders demonstrate a growing interest over their activities, especially in those related to sustainability. In a more globa l environment, companies need to develop new skills related to sustainability management. For this assignment we will analyze the case of Nike, a company whose expansion strategy made it the global poster child for corporate ethical fecklessness (Zadek, 2004). Nike was founded in 1964 by Phil Knight and Bill Bowerman at a time when the sport shoes market in America was dominated by expensive products manufactured in the United States and Germany. While completing his MBA in Finance from Stanford University,Show MoreRelatedCase Study Of Nike, A Global Environment, Transportation And New Technologies1021 Words   |  5 Pagesor even the country. The goal should be to go global and take advantage of the opportunities offered by the phenomenon of globalization and be part of the â€Å"global market†. This is rather ambitious but some companies have stepped out their country’s borders and have gained global recognition. This has been possible mainly thank to the important advances made in the 20th century, especially in the area of communication, transportation and new technologies. These advances have allowed many companiesRead MoreNike in China3150 Words   |  13 PagesExecutive Summary Overview Nike is the market leader in athletic shoes in the United States. The Oregon based company has always utilized offshore facilities in low-income countries to produce at minimal costs followed by importation into predominantly the US for sales. Nike is quick to divest from emerging markets as costs rise and has recently signed short term production contracts with a long term strategy of production in China. Unlike Nike’s previous global endeavors, the political and culturalRead MoreUnder Armour Is Gaining Market Share And Challenging Nike2043 Words   |  9 Pages Abstract Under Armour is gaining market share and challenging Nike in the sports apparel industry. However, Under Armour is having major issues with inventory management and managing cost. Inventory cost has increased steadily over the past three years and is now at the point where it is out weighing revenue. UNDER ARMOUR: CHALLENGING NIKE IN SPORTS APPAREL 3 CASE DESCRIPTION Under Armour, Inc., was founded in1996, by Kevin Plank, by a former University of Maryland footballRead Moremarketing strategy4037 Words   |  17 PagesModule Code: MKT 306 Nike – A report on Nike trainers from Nike Inc. and its market analysis in the UK. Submitted to University of Sunderland Submitted by: BIJAY GURUNG Student code: 109122858 BA (HONS) BUSINESS MANAGEMENT (YEAR 3) WORD COUNT: 3498 (excluding executive summary, references and relevant appendices) Table of Contents 1. Executive Summary†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.pg.3 2. Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..pg.4 3. Marketing Audit of Nike Inc. UK†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Read MoreAn Evaluation Of The Business Lego2310 Words   |  10 Pageswill be elaborated on and portrayed how they are incorporated throughout various businesses. Operations processes and strategies will be exemplified throughout the report and broken down further into the supply chain management, outsourcing and technology of a business. An evaluation of the business Lego will be presented and deliver how the business examines CSR and why consumers prefer their business compared to other leading competitors. 2.0 CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY 2.1 LEGAL COMPLIANCERead MoreCarbon Emissions And Its Effect On The Environment1733 Words   |  7 Pagesemission and how to create efficiency transportation is a critical thing that enterprise needs to concern. According to HM’s annual reports, more than 50% percent of carbon emissions are from their transportation between the factories and stores, therefore, choosing more sustainable ways in transportation is one of a good resource to reduce the hurt for the environment. There are highly percentages of their shipments shipping via railway or sea, because sea transportation and train are relatively unpollutedRead MoreNike Inc. Case Study2161 Words   |  9 PagesNike, Inc. : Case Study in Operations Management MGT 441 Prepared for: Dr. Davidson, Concord University Prepared by: Jeremiah Nelson Johnathan Coleman Emily O’Dell December 4th, 2012 Introduction Low-cost, time-efficient manufacturing of goods is a key feature of a successful production company in today’s competitive global economy. Operations management, often abbreviated in the business world as OM, is defined as â€Å"...the set of activities that creates value in the form of goodsRead MoreNike- Managerial Case Study4914 Words   |  20 PagesNIKE Business Case Study Management Theory (BUS830-13) Submitted to: Dr. J. Saleeby Done by: Rola El Cheikh 201005281 Thursday, December 23, 2010 Executive Summary Nike hit the ground running in 1962. Originally known as Blue Ribbon Sports, the company focused on providing high quality running shoes designed especially for athletes by athletes, at competitive prices. Today, Nike is the worlds leading maker of athletic shoes, equipment and apparel. Nike has invested highly on marketingRead MoreNike- Managerial Case Study4930 Words   |  20 PagesNIKE Business Case Study Management Theory (BUS830-13) Submitted to: Dr. J. Saleeby Done by: Rola El Cheikh 201005281 Thursday, December 23, 2010 Executive Summary Nike hit the ground running in 1962. Originally known as Blue Ribbon Sports, the company focused on providing high quality running shoes designed especially for athletes by athletes, at competitive prices. Today, Nike is the worlds leading maker of athletic shoes, equipment and apparel. Nike has invested highly on marketing. It hasRead MoreImpact Of Globalization On The World1787 Words   |  8 PagesThis report will discuss the multiple roles of globalization in providing and transferring new and advanced technologies which, despite their significance, can severely damage the environment. This report will also be covering multiple aspects such as what we mean by globalization as a anomaly of changes. What technologies mean. What are the factors of globalization that supported it and what are the variables of it. First the term â€Å"globalization† must be defined. There are various definitions of

The Microwave Plasma Enhanced Engineering Essay Free Essays

string(89) " a immense hydraulic imperativeness with anvils and a ring molded construction are used\." When diamond is mentioned, people will automatically believe about the cost that valued by the society. Why diamond, a type of gemstones, will be so much more than others? Diamond is non merely a shinny rock. It has a batch of great and alone belongingss such as highest hardness and thermic conduction of any bulk stuff. We will write a custom essay sample on The Microwave Plasma Enhanced Engineering Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now These belongingss determine the major industrial application of diamond in cutting and polishing tools. Besides, the optical feature is something that must be discuss in diamond. With highly stiff lattice, the optical features become important. However, diamond still can pollute by few types of drosss, such as B and N, which consequences in some colour for diamond. In this paper, a reappraisal of diamond will be presented. How diamond is made Naturally, diamonds are formed at high force per unit area and high temperature conditions bing at deepnesss of 140-190 kilometer in the Earth mantle. They are bought near to Earth surface through volcanic eruptions by a magma, which cools into pyrogenic stone known as kimberlites and lamproites. Figure 1shows a stage diagram of C. From Figure 1, diamond is stable at high force per unit areas and temperatures. Graphite, nevertheless, is the stable signifier of C under ordinary temperature and force per unit area conditions. One method of synthesising diamond is to subject graphite to conditions of about 55,000 ambiances and temperatures of about 2000 A ; deg ; -C. However, even though C is non at the minimal energy province, it does non spontaneously convert from diamond to graphite. Since we know that diamonds are form at high force per unit area and high temperature. Research originally synthesis diamonds under same conditions, high force per unit area high temperature ( HPHT ) . Figure 1 Phase diagram for C. At sufficiently high temperatures and force per unit areas diamond is the stable. At lower temperatures and force per unit areas, black lead is the stable signifier. Under ordinary conditions for temperature and force per unit area, near 1 standard pressures and room temperature, diamond may be considered a metastable signifier of C. ( Reinhard ) The everyday belongingss of diamond such as hardness and high thermic conduction make it an of import new stuff in a broad scope of applications. However, the high cost of stuff production has limited the commercial used of diamond thin movies to a few applications. Today the engineering is able create artefactual diamond by chemical vapour deposition ( CVD ) . CVD is a method of bring forthing man-made diamond by making the fortunes necessary for C atoms in a gas to settle on a substrate in crystalline signifier. It is common to happen grammatical crystals with about equal development of ( 111 ) and ( 100 ) faces ( Figure 2 ) . ( DeVries ) Diamond grows by CVD frequently involves feeding changing sums of gases into a chamber, stimulating them and supplying conditions for diamond growing on the substrate. The gases include a C beginning and typically include H every bit good. However the sums used depends on the type of diamond being grown. In CVD of diamond, the factors driving cost include low reagent use, low deposition rates, high-energy ingestion, big thermic direction tonss at the substrate, and capital equipment costs. For successful consequence, diamond deposition depends on different chemical and conveyance procedures happening in the gas stage and on the surface. ( See Figure 4 for the ascertained forms of as-grown natural diamonds, high temperature high force per unit area ( HPHT ) grown synthetics and chemical vapor deposition ( CVD ) grown diamonds, including the measure patterns on the different faces ) Figure 2 Diamond crystals from CVD deposition. The largest dimension is about 20 jlm. ( DeVries ) All diamond CVD processes under a extremely energetic activation phase in the gas stage. It lead to two intents which are to disassociate the hydrocarbon precursor molecule into fragments that react more readily at the deposition surface and to disassociate molecular H to make a superequilibrium concentration of gas-phase H atoms. ( See Figure 3 for different technique of C dissolved in H vs. temperature ) Hot-filament reactors, microwave plasma reactors, DC arcjet reactors, and burning are most commonly energy used as diamond CVD reactors. These reactors have a few common characteristics and that ‘s why they are able to bring forth high quality diamond movies. They all have a big sum of energy, in the signifier of electrical or chemical free energy, is input to accomplish dissociation of molecular H and the hydrocarbon feedstock. Reasonably low force per unit areas are used to forestall three-body recombination of H to organize molecular H. High gas-phase temperature is produc ed in the activation zone, and inactive or active chilling is employed to keep a substrate temperature in the vicinity. However, they are different from the conveyance processes. Hot-filament and microwave plasma are dominated by diffusion which mean there is no thermic, speed, or concentration boundary bed. Linear gradients in temperature, speed, or species concentration between the excitement part ( hot fibril or plasma ball ) and the deposition surface in both reactors are frequently found. However, the disadvantage is growing rate is slow. DC arcjet CVD and burning is characterized by high speeds ; thin boundary beds in temperature, speed, and concentration are formed near the growing surface. In the followers, the item of each technique will be introduced. Figure 3 Differential solubility of C in H for different CVD diamond methods. Figure 4 Idealized morphologies of natural, HPHT-grown and CVD-grown diamonds. For the { 111 } and { 100 } faces characteristic orientations o f growing stairss are besides indicated. ( Nazare and Neves ) High force per unit area and high temperature ( HPHT ) Artificial Diamond is original made by high force per unit area and high temperature ( HPHT ) It is still widely used because of it ‘s comparatively low cost. It is typically processed under a force per unit area of 5GPa at 1500 A ; deg ; C. There are two common systems ; Belt system and Bars system. In belt system, a immense hydraulic imperativeness with anvils and a ring molded construction are used. You read "The Microwave Plasma Enhanced Engineering Essay" in category "Essay examples" The upper and lower anvils supply the force per unit area burden to a cylindrical inner cell and a belt of pre-stressed steel sets confines the internal. Anvils serve as electrodes and supply electrical current to the compressed cell. A fluctuation of the belt imperativeness uses hydraulic force per unit area to restrict the internal force per unit area. Figure 5 is a conventional illustration of a belt system where diamond seeds are placed at the underside of the imperativeness. While the in ternal portion of imperativeness is heated, the liquefied metal dissolves the high pureness C beginning. The liquefied metal so transports to the diamond seeds and precipitates. Colorless diamond can be synthesized if the N is removed by blending little sum of Ti with the metal. ( International Diamond Lab ) Figure 5 aˆ?This is a conventional illustration of a Belt type HPHT imperativeness. ( International Diamond Lab ) BARS system is developed at the Russian Academy of Sciences in Novosibirsk. It is really similar to the belt type system. It is made up by eight outer anvils with a spherical outer form to which force per unit area is applied and six inner anvils to multiply the force per unit area to the sample. BARS system is the most compact, efficient, and economical of all the diamond-producing imperativenesss. ( International Diamond Lab ) Hot-filament CVD Hot-filament CVD is besides called thermally activated CVD. It is one of the earliest developed attacks to low force per unit area synthesis of diamond. A furnace lining metal, normally tungsten, is used as a fibril, is heated to high temperature around 2300 A ; deg ; C. The temperature can be reach by opposition warming and the high temperature aid to trip the hydrocarbon-hydrogen gas mixture. The fibril is located a few millimetres above the substrate besides provides warming for the substrate. The hydrocarbon-hydrogen gas mixture is allowed to flux across the hot fibril, where it is activated. Hot-filament CVD reactors are cheap and easy to build. The filament temperature, the place of the substrate with regard to the fibril, and the gas flow kineticss play of import factors in the procedure. However, there are several disadvantages of this technique such as taint of the diamond movie by the fibril, eroding and sagging of the fibril, and a comparatively slow growing rate. It is b esides necessary to provide changeless power throughout a deposition utilizing a proper power accountant but the uniformity of the substrate temperature is hard to keep when utilizing multiple fibrils. ( Reinhard ) Figure 6 Conventional diagram of the hot fibril CVD procedure demoing the basic elements. Microwave plasma-enhanced CVD ( MPECVD ) Microwave plasma enhanced CVD is widely used for diamond deposition. A magnetron is normally used to bring forth micro-cook energy at 2.45 GHz and a wave-guide assembly is used to match the energy to a resonating pit. MPECVD is an electrodless procedure, which is an advantage over other techniques, and there is no taint from the electrode stuff. The microwave plasma excitement of H generates superequilibrium concentrations of atomic H. The hits of negatrons with gas atoms and molecules generate high ionisation fractions. ( Reinhard ) Figure 7 Conventional apparatus of the CVD synthesis of diamond. ( Markus ) Direct current ( DC ) arcjet discharge technique DC arcjet discharge is a really high growing rate procedure. Normally, this technique will be usage to synthesis midst and freestanding diamond substrates. A DC arcjet discharge reactor for diamond deposition consists of a gas injection nose, composed of a rod cathode, which is normally made of wolframs, concentric with a tubing anode. Gass are allowed to flux between the cathode and anode. Gass will be spray out from an opening in the anode so a high temperature discharge jet is created and sustained by a DC electromotive force across the electrode. The substrate is located downstream from the jet watercourse on a water-cooled substrate phase. Carbon precursor and graphite etchant gases would be introduced at different locations depending on the coveted activation temperature. Although this technique is frequently used because of the high growing rate, there is several disadvantages of it such as the movie can undergo from high compressive emphasiss, microvoids, and high surface rag gedness. ( Reinhard ) Combustion Combustion is good cognize for its scalable nature, minimum public-service corporation demands, and significantly cut down capital costs relative to plasma assisted procedures. The most of import parametric quantity in burning synthesis is the oxygen-to-acetylene ratio, defined as R = O2: C2H. At values of R near 1.0, a impersonal fire is achieved, which is defined as the status where the feather part merely disappears because all the ethyne is consumed in the primary fire. The diamond growing regimes as a map of composing are showed in Figure 9. The highest quality diamond is obtained in somewhat rich fires, when oxygen-to-acetylene ratio is about 0.85-1.0. The value of R at which a impersonal fire occurs is dependent on both burner design and entire flow rate. Substrate temperature is control in a scope from 950-1650K during burning CVD. With high temperatures, substrates has been limited to stuffs such as Si, aluminum oxide, and diamond. However, it is non easy to mensurate the substrate temperature in burning CVD due to the utmost heat fluxes present. Substrate temperature controls growing rate and morphology. As the substrate temperature additions, the growing rate is relative. ( See Figure 9 ) However, after the growing rate reaches its upper limit, an look of a rapi d diminution in both the quality and the growing rate is observed. ( Reinhard ) Figure 8 Two designs of atmospheric level fire burners: ( a ) a coflow design and ( B ) a cornet bell design ( Reinhard ) Figure 9 The consequence of substrate temperature on growing rate observed in burning CVD of diamond. In atmospheric torches the maximal growing rate occurs at substrate temperatures between 1450 and 1650 K ( Reinhard ) Metastable Diamond is uncommon because of two grounds. First, the dynamicss of graphite formation are much faster than the dynamicss of diamond formation in normal status. Second, a big activation energy barrier between black lead and diamond prevents thermic activation of diamond into black lead. ( See Figure 10 ) When diamond is synthesized under conditions where black lead is the stable stage of C, the consequence of synthesising diamond is normally failed. It is because the denseness of diamond is greater than the denseness of black lead. ( Anthony ) At ordinary temperatures and force per unit areas, although diamond is non the minimal energy province of C, it is besides non an unstable phase of C. ( see Figure 1 ) Therefore, if C atoms are in the diamond lattice spacial agreement, the solid does non spontaneously change over to graphite under low temperature, low force per unit area conditions. Formation of diamond from nascent C incorporating species under metastable conditions is both thermodynamically allowed and readily achieved under proper deposition conditions. It is the lower temperatures and force per unit areas associated with this method of diamond synthesis that have offered the capableness of direct deposition of diamond on a assortment of substrates and have opened the possibility of new applications of diamond. For many such applications, the diamond thickness demand be merely on the order of microns ; hence the constructions are referred to as diamond movies. ( Reinhard ) Figure 10 Energy diagram of C ( Anthony ) Structure Pure diamond is composed merely by C and arranged in the diamond lattice. ( See Figure 11 In theory, pure diamonds are crystalline and colorless. ) In diamond lattice, each C atom has four nearest neighbours in the tetrahedral agreement associated with sp3 chemical bonds. The nearest neighbour distance is 1.54 A ; Aring ; and the unit cell dimension is 3.567 A ; Aring ; . The denseness of diamond is 3.515g/cm3. The measure of diamond is normally referred to carats, where one carat is equal to 200mg. ( Reinhard ) However, quality of diamond is considerable because both natural and man-made diamond may incorporate drosss and defects. Diamonds occur in assorted colour and these are caused by defects, including replaced drosss and structural defect. These defects will impact the light soaking up. Therefore, diamonds are characterized into type I, type II and some subtypes, with the former containing N as an dross and the latter being basically nitrogen free. ( John, Polwart and Troupe ) ( a ) ( B ) Figure 11 a ) Conventional diagram of carbon-carbon bonding in diamond and black lead ( Anthony ) B ) 3D diamond lattice Type I Type I diamonds in which impurity-related optical and paramagnetic soaking up are dominated by N defects. Normally, type I diamonds are crystalline to 300 nanometers. ( Robertson R. ) In general, the dross content of natural type I diamonds is more varied compared to that of type II diamonds. The most apparent difference between type I and II diamonds comes from IR soaking up spectra, which are considered to be the chief standard for this distinction. ( See Figure 12 for Refraction index of type I and type II ) About 98 % of natural diamonds contain nitrogen with concentrations noticeable in optical soaking up. 74 % of them have a N content high plenty to be decidedly classified as type I. Nitrogen is regularly nowadays in natural diamonds at degrees every bit high as 200 to 4000 ppm. ( Zaitsev ) In type I, there are three subtypes, type Ia, type Ib, and type Ic. Type Ia contains N in farily significant sums of the order of o.1 % which most natural diamonds belong to this type. Type Ib besides contains N but in spread substitutional signifier which most of man-made diamonds are this type. ( Markus ) Type Ic include diamonds that contain high concentration of disruptions. Even type Ic does n’t truly related to contaimination of N but the feature of type Ic is categorized in type I. Type Ic has the absoption continuum at wavelength below 900nm and a extremum at 560nm. ( Zaitsev ) Figure 12 Refraction index of type IIa and type I natural diamonds in the UV spectral part ( Zaitsev ) Type II Type II includes diamonds demoing no optical and paramagnetic soaking up due to nitrogen-related defects. The measure of N found in type II is really small. ( Below 1017cm-3 ) Type II diamonds are exhibited optical transparence up to 230 nanometers ( Robertson R. ) . However, it is rare to happen natural diamonds without nitrogen-related defects in soaking up. Merely 1 to 2 % of type II diamonds are found in nature. ( Zaitsev ) There are two subtypes are in type II, type IIa and type IIb. Type IIa is non effectual by N and this type of diamonds has enhanced optical and thermic belongingss. However, they are rare to happen in natural. Type IIb is a really pure type which has semiconducting belongingss and this type of diamond is normally find in bluish and highly rare in nature. ( Markus ) Influence of defects and dross Nitrogen does non strongly act upon the refractile index of diamond in the seeable spectral part. Therefore the refractile index for types I and II natural diamonds may non differ by more than 1 % . ( Robertson R. ) Since there is no definite inclination for discriminatory double refraction of diamonds of any type, it indicated that nitrogen dross does non straight act upon the double refraction of diamond. However there is a tendency such that natural diamonds of mean size, with an enhanced double refraction, are ultraviolet conveying. Diamonds with a low double refraction are normally ultraviolet-opaque and N is the caused for this consequence. Diamond with low N, type II, have a really distorted stressed crystal lattice. ( Zaitsev ) The double refraction of diamond is caused by fictile distortion, elastic distortion near inclusion, growing striations, growing sector boundaries, disruptions, grain boundaries, and diamond-substrate boundaries. The phenomena occur in both types of diamonds. The highest double refraction is found in fragments of natural diamonds where dodecahedral diamonds shows the least double refraction. Defects arises from sheets of stacking mistakes are expected to ensuing the double refraction contrast weaker than from partial disruptions. However, partial disruptions or stacking fault sheets will be seen merely the background double refraction is really low. ( Zaitsev ) Properties Diamonds have some great belongingss that other stuff still can non be compared and that is the ground why people would wish to understand how diamond is formed and synthesis diamond to cut down the cost of the stuff. Diamond is good known for high thermic conduction, high electrical electric resistance, low coefficient of clash, high grade of chemical inertness, high optical scattering, big energy spread, low infrared soaking up, and high dislocation electromotive force. See Table 1 for outstanding belongingss of diamond. Table 1 Some belongingss of diamond ( Markus ) Thermal Properties As mentioned, diamond has high thermic conduction. For high quality individual crystals, normally type IIa, the thermic conduction, ? , is about 22W/cm A ; deg ; C at room temperature. This belongings is due to the stiffness of diamond bond and the diamond construction, which rise to a high acoustic speed and a really high characteristic temperature. Recently, research worker has reported the best thermic conduction of the movie is about 11W/cm A ; deg ; C. For midst movie, the conduction is about17W/cm A ; deg ; C at room temperature. ( J.E. Graebner ) Figure 13 indicates the relation between thermic conduction and movie thickness, where thermic conduction additions with movie thickness. Thermal conducitivy besides depends on grain boundary. Diamond ‘s thermic conduction additions with decreasing temperature, making a upper limit of 42 W/cm-K near 80 K, after making the upper limit the thermic conduction lessenings. Impurities, such as N, cut down the thermic conduction. Ty pe I diamonds with 0.1 % N merely have 50 % thermic conduction values of type II diamonds in room temperature. Isotropic pureness increases the thermic conduction. Man-made diamond crystals grows with pure carbon-12 have thermic conductions 50 % higher than those of natural diamond for which the atomic weight is 12.01 because the stuff contains 1.1 % carbon-13. ( Zaitsev ) Figure 13Measured thermic conduction at 25 A ; deg ; C for five samples ( squares ) . Solid circles show the derived conduction. The horizontal dotted line indicates the typical conduction reported for individual crystal high quality ( Type IIa ) diamond. ( J.E. Graebner ) Optical Properties Diamond movies are normally crystalline in the infrared, with the exclusion of the carbon-hydrogen absorbing sets centered at about 2900cm-1, weak absorbing in the seeable spectrum, and increasing absorbing with diminishing wavelength in the UV visible radiation. The optical spread value is range from 0.38 to 2.72 for diamond movies. ( A. ) The index of refraction, both the existent portion N and fanciful portion K, and its spectroscopic fluctuation has been found to be dependent on the readying conditions and H content of the movies. Its value at 632.8 nanometers can be adjusted from 1.7 to 2.4 by seting the deposition conditions. ( A. ) This refractile index is big comparison to other crystalline stuff. With big refractile index, it is besides found big contemplation coefficient and a little angle for entire internal contemplation. ( Zaitsev ) The index of refraction is besides affected by the H content in the diamond movies and by and large additions with diminishing concentration of edge H. It is, nevertheless, dependant on the concentration of edge H and non entire H content in the movie. A higher index of refraction normally indicates diamond with stronger crosslinking, higher hardness, and better wear opposition. ( A. ) Diamond is besides photoconductive. There is a strong photoconductive extremum at 225 nanometers due to excitement of negatrons across the set spread in pure diamond, and in B doped diamond there are besides peaks from 1.4 to 3.5 ?m due to excitement of the deep-lying acceptor degrees. ( Reinhard ) Electrical belongingss The electrical belongings of diamond movie is good known for big set spread. Diamond have a modest bandgap. The energy set construction of diamond exhibits an indirect energy spread with a value of 5.47 electron volt at 300 K. This is sufficiently big that at near room temperature the intrinsic bearer concentration is negligible and the stuff is an dielectric with a dielectric invariable of about 5.7. ( Zaitsev ) ( See Figure 14 for set construction ) In an dielectric the valency negatrons form strong bonds between neighbouring atoms and accordingly these bonds are hard to interrupt. Thus, the bandgap is big and there are no free negatrons to take part in current conductivity at or near room temperature. ( Markus ) Figure 14 Activation energies for some drosss in diamond. B is boron for P type, P is phosphorus for n-type, and N is nitrogen. ( Markus ) The set construction of diamond movie is assumed to dwell merely a mobility spread, where bearers shacking in spread provinces are localized. The mobility spread produces semiconducting material behaviour, nevertheless, the high denseness of localised spread provinces leads to low apparent bearer mobilities and significantly degrades the semiconducting belongingss of stuff. Diamond movies normally have high electrical electric resistances from 102-1016? , depending on the deposition status ( A. ) The electrical conduction of diamond is more sensitive to drosss than the thermic conduction. The electrical electric resistance can be reduced by several orders of magnitude through incorporation of metals or N in the movies. The lessening of electric resistance by incorporation of dopants possibly related to a dopant induced graphitization. However, more groundss are needed to turn out. Boron doped p-type diamond exists in nature. The growing of B doped diamond movies by CVD techniques has been achieved by adding B incorporating molecules to the gas mixture in either a microwave or in a hot fibril reactor ensuing in the growing of B incorporating p-type diamond movies. ( A. ) ( R. ) N-type doping is much more complicated. It is still questionable about the possible giver atom that will give a shallow plenty energy degree in the spread to be sufficiently ionized at room temperature. Most late clear giver activity is phosphorus doped for n-type diamond. In Figure 15, the dependance of the electric resistance on measurement temperature. Similar inclines are obtained for all samples proves that in this temperature run the conductivity mechanism is thermally activated, with an activation energy of 0.46 electron volt, instead independent of growing conditions. ( R. ) Figure 15 Temperature dependance of the electric resistance of n-type diamond, doped with different sums ( ppm ) of P ( 300,800 K ) . ( R. ) B. Mechanical Properties Diamond is the hardest known substance. Diamond besides has the lowest squeezability, the highest elastic modulus, and the highest isotropous velocity of sound ( 18,000 m/sec ) of any known materia ( Nazare and Neves ) . The grade of hardness is quantified in footings of both opposition to indenture and scratch ( or abrasion ) opposition. In footings of squeezability, the ratio of tensile emphasis to linear strain, or Young ‘s modulus, is 1050 GPa, a value about five times higher than that of steel. However under different methods of proving, the Young ‘s modulus is different and C11, C12, C44. Table 2 provides the Young ‘s moduli of diamond with different trial methods. Because of its brickle nature, diamond is non peculiarly strong. ( Markus ) Table 2 Elastic moduli of diamond ( GPa ) ( Nazare and Neves ) Method C11 C12 C44 Ultrasonics 950 390 430 X raies 1100 330 440 Brillouin 949 151 521 The mechanical strength of diamond is influenced by a figure of important factors, including the applied emphasis system, the ambient temperature and the grade of both internal ( drosss ) and external ( surface coating ) flawlessness. Fracture occurs when a certain degree of emphasis is applied and the manner of failure will be that which requires the smallest emphasis. Materials, where the bonding is preponderantly covalent or where there is a significant grade of covalent bonding, have a big built-in lattice opposition to dislocation gesture and failure occurs at low emphasiss, below the theoretical break emphasis. Diamond, as with any other crystalline stuff, can neglect by either brickle break, cleavage, or in a ductile manner, flow by a shear procedure. Although thermic belongingss and electrical conduction are both extremely affected by N, there is no clear grounds found that mechanical belongingss are clear related to N. ( Nazare and Neves ) Highly inert chemically Diamond is extremely inert chemically, except for two state of affairss. It is susceptible to oxidising agents at high temperatures. For illustration, if diamond is heated in the presence of O, oxidization Begins at around 900 K. Besides, diamond is capable to chemical onslaught by certain metals at high temperatures. These include carbide formers such as wolframs, Ta, Ti, and Zr every bit good as dissolvers for C such as Fe, Co, manganese, nickel, Cr, and Pt. ( Zaitsev ) Applications Diamond is a really utile stuff because of the outstanding belongingss including high thermic conduction, high electrical electric resistance, low coefficient of clash, high grade of chemical inertness, high optical scattering, big energy spread, low infrared soaking up, and high dislocation electromotive force. With these belongingss, diamond is used for diverse application besides jewellery. They are normally used in mechanical application, optical applications, thermic applications, and sensor applications. Diamond can be used for scratchy and wear opposition coating for cutting tools, lenses, Windowss for power optical masers, diffractive optical elements, heat sinks for power transistors, semiconducting material optical maser arrays, solar blind photodetector, and radiation hard and chemically inert sensors. Table 3 Future application countries for diamond electronics. ( Markus ) Film editing Tools Single crystal diamond is used for coating of modulated or layered composing of two or more passage metal compounds. It is common to utilize diamond coating for certain types of crunching wheels or cutting of extremely scratchy metals and metals. There are two ways to use diamond on to the film editing tools. First, turning comparatively thick beds of CVD diamond from which separate freestanding pieces are obtained. These pieces are so brazed onto a cutting tool. Second, straight deposited diamond onto the film editing tools. ( Markus ) Often, high-quality diamonds are selected for usage in dressing tools for non-ferrous metals, aluminium, brass bronze, ceramics, black lead, and glass fiber-reinforced construction. ( Markus ) ( Hammond and Evans ) Single-point diamond is mounted in a metal matrix. They are normally used to dress and leave or reconstruct the needed geometric form to certain scratchy wheels. Two typically signifiers of such film editing tools are single-point and multi -point. Today, individual or multi-point cutters include milling, turning, drilling, cutting-off and slitting. ( Hammond and Evans ) Demonstrated surfacing diamond onto hardmetals Hardmetals are the most valuable and of import substrates for coated tools, due to their intrinsic belongingss and their broad scope of mechanical belongingss. They consist of WC and Co with add-ons of TiC, ( Ta5Nb ) C, and VC, which chiefly change their hardness and wear opposition. The sum of Co binder is mostly responsible for ductileness or crispness. Hardmetals have been used as wear parts and film editing tools for decennaries, with and without surfacing applications. Normally, successful diamond coatings on WC-Co substrates have no or a really low sum of three-dimensional carbides ( TiC ) and besides a comparatively low Co content. Both Co and TiC add-ons increase the thermic enlargement coefficient of the hardmetal and cut down the adhesion of the diamond coating. A high Co vapour force per unit area and its high mobility on the substrate surface influence diamond deposition. In the gas stage environing the substrate surface, Co catalyses the formation of nondiamond C stages, which can be deposited at the interface prior to the diamond formation. How and why the Co drops reach the diamond coating surface is non yet to the full understood. Surface forces might play an of import function ( See Figure 16 ) . Figure 16 Co as portion of the hardmetal binder stage and its influences on the diamond deposition Electrochemical Applications Electrochemical behaviour of boron-doped CVD diamond is one of the most promising applications of conductive diamond. Boron doped diamond fits the demand for an electrode operates inertly and without impairment in rough chemical environments. Compare to platinum electrodes, diamond electrodes provide a much wider potency scope over which no important H2O decomposition occurs. ( Reinhard ) Diamond electrodes are suited substrates for reactions crossing a broad possible scope in aqueous solutions. They besides have the advantage of chemical stableness, even in extremely aggressive environments. In Figure 17 the I-V curves obtained with a B doped CVD diamond electrodes in assorted ( KI, KBr, and HCl ) solutions are shown. The behaviour of the doped diamond electrode is much superior to that of the commonly used baronial metal electrodes. Diamond bears as a stuff for the fiction of cold cathode or other negatron breathing devices requires the diamond to be electrically conductive, with n o demand for an accurately known doping degree. ( R. ) Figure 17 Current V. Potential of a extremely B doped CVD diamond electrode in ( a ) 1 M KI ; ( B ) 1 M KBr and ( degree Celsius ) 1 M HCl. Scan rate 150 mV/s. The alone negatron emanation belongingss of diamond are the most promising applications of semiconducting diamond. Although, no clear apprehension of the natural philosophies that determined the negatron emanation from diamond emerges. There are still many applications such as field emanation from diamond surfaces utilizing diamond to conductive. Thermal Management The high thermic conduction of diamond, combined in some instances with its chemical inertness and high electrical electric resistance, makes it of involvement for a assortment of thermic direction applications. Laser diamond heat sinks and other thermic direction substrates formed from CVD polycrystalline diamond are illustrations of available merchandises. Because diamond combines exceptionally high thermic conduction with exceptionally low electrical conduction, it is of considerable involvement in electrical packaging applications. It provides efficient waies for heat flow without compromising the electrical isolation of single constituents. ( Reinhard ) Transmission Applications Diamond provides a window with high transmission for assorted parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. It is an ideal radiation window stuff in peculiar for applications affecting high power degrees and mechanical, thermic or chemical burden. Due to its big bandgap ( 5.5 electron volt ) and the deficiency of infrared active cardinal vibrational manners, diamond is optically crystalline over a big wavelength scope. Even at elevated temperatures, diamond remains crystalline, since the big bandgap does non let the formation of free bearers. In the x-ray part of the spectrum, diamond is of involvement for x-ray lithography masks. The low atomic figure of diamond consequences in low x-ray soaking up. Another illustration is in high-octane gyrotrons such as are used in merger research. This application requires the transmittal of really big powers ( megawatts ) at microwave frequences ( 170 GHz ) every bit good as the ability to disperse heat quickly. The ability to convey high powers in the optical part of the spectrum is of involvement to laser interior decorators because the design of high-power optical masers is power limited by harm bounds to laser optics instead than restrictions of the optical maser medium or pumping mechanisms. The abrasion opposition and chemical inertness make diamond of involvement as an optical coating stuff every bit good. ( Reinhard ) Diamond is known for its broadband optical transparence covering the UV, seeable, close and far IR. In this scope the optical transmittal exhibits merely minor intrinsic soaking up sets originating from two- phonon ( 1332-2664 cm-1 ) and three-phonon ( 2665-3994 cm-1 ) passages. The maximal soaking up coefficient sums to 14 cm-1 at 2158 cm-1. This holds true for optical class CVD-diamond as shown in Figure 18. The soaking up around 10 ^m is of peculiar involvement for CO2-laser constituents and because many IR detectors operate within the 8-12 ?m atmospheric window. ( Nazare and Neves ) Figure 18Transmission spectrum of a high-quality CVD-diamond window ( thickness: 150 ?m ) ( Nazare and Neves ) CVD-diamond is besides used as vacuity Windowss for high-power microwave ( Gyrotron ) tubing. These Gyrotron tubings are used for the negatron cyclotron warming of merger plasmas. Power degrees transcending 1 MW at frequences of around 100 GHz have been demonstrated. Until late the end product window of these devices has been the most critical constituent restricting the maximal end product power or the pulse continuance. In this context CVD-diamond window with H2O edgecooling is found to be really promising. The highly high power degree requires really low insulator losingss. CVD-diamond exhibits loss tangent values every bit low as 10-5 ( at 140 GHz ) . Below 350-400 A ; deg ; C there is practically no temperature dependance. In the 10- 145 GHz range the loss tangent decreases with frequence as 1/f [ 27 ] or as 1/f05. ( Nazare and Neves ) X-ray lithography masks The declaration bound of optical lithography is defined by diffraction and sprinkling as the characteristic size approaches the exposing wavelength. X ray lithography, which uses significantly shorter radiation ( 0.8-1.5 nm versus 300-400 nanometer ) , offers a proficient way to accomplishing the higher declaration. However, several factors have delayed the execution of X-ray lithography on the production line for IC fiction. The major non-technical factor is related to the immense constitutional optical technological substructure which has continued to do important betterments by utilizing measure and repetition exposure tools, integrating multilevel resist, using contrast foils, utilizing shorter wavelength radiation, planing higher numerical aperture optics, which has efficaciously delayed the execution of X-ray lithography. The proficient barriers to X-ray lithography execution include the absence of a dependable, high volume, low defect denseness X-ray mask engineering, a high velocity X-ray resist, a high velocity, low cost exposure/alignment tool. The best mask stuff has low atomic figure since the X-ray transparence improves with diminishing atomic figure. TABLE 1 reveals the failing of polymers as membrane stuff campaigners. They are non merely hygroscopic but are automatically soft and hence easy distorted. The metals Ti and Be are reasonably stiff ; nevertheless, their opacity is troublesome, but non pathological, since alliance Windowss can be etched in the membrane after overcoating with polyimide to back up the alliance form. Beryllium would be first-class were it crystalline, dismissing its toxicity. Si and its nitride and oxide are good from an X-ray and optical transparence point of view but lack the mechanical stiffness of the furnace linings like SiC, BN and diamond. Si has the important advantage of a big installed engineering base and capital equipment handiness. As can be seen, diamond has the highest stiffness factor S of any stuff. There are other factors to see in choosing a stuff such as: scale-up of fiction procedure, X-ray-induced debasement, surface smoothness, two-dimensionality, secondary negatron emanation induced by the X raies, adhesion of metallization. Diamond ‘s low mass soaking up coefficient and low denseness make it compatible with a assortment of X-ray beginnings. ( Nazare and Neves ) Table 4 Comparison of stuffs based on X-ray transparence Texas, optical transparence to, and mechanical stiffness S. ( Nazare and Neves ) Material Texas ( ?m ) t0 S = Et0Z ( I-V ) ( GPa Polyimide 8.7 A ; gt ; 5 43 Mylar 8.5 A ; gt ; 5 42 Titanium 1.09 Opaque – Be 42.0 Opaque – Silicon 9.6 2 362 Al2O3 0.8 1 448 SiO2 4.99 5 444 Si3N4 7.71 6 728 BN 7.94 4 420 SiC 6.81 3 1590 Diamond 5.9 2 2336 Detectors and Detectors Diamond-based devices are besides of involvement for observing a assortment of radiation types every bit good as feeling assorted physical parametric quantities such as temperature and force per unit area. For illustration, diamond thermal resistors have been proposed for temperature measuring in hostile environments such as chemical processing, gearbox oil, and cryogenies. The piezoresistive consequence of diamond has been used to feel force per unit area, and p-type CVD polycrystalline diamond is reported to hold a big piezoresistive gage factor [ 12 ] . Diamond is highly radiation hard, with a 55-eV supplanting energy for a C atom in the diamond lattice. It besides acts as an ionizing radiation sensor and is hence of involvement for radiation measurings where exposure to big doses is required. The big set spread of diamond make it of involvement as a UV sensor, based on photoconduction, which is blind to seeable visible radiation. ( Reinhard ) Decision How to cite The Microwave Plasma Enhanced Engineering Essay, Essay examples

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What does 100 percent or 150 percent of poverty mean? The federal poverty level represents the level at which poverty or subsistence begins. Each year, the federal government determines this number based on inflation and other relevant factors. The federal poverty level guidelines are used as an eligibility criterion for federal, states and local government programs. 100 percent of poverty mean- an individual or household’s annual income is equal 100 percent of the federal poverty level. 50 percent poverty mean- an individual or a household earns 50 percent more than the federal poverty level. In 2012 for instance, the federal poverty level for an individual was $11,170, so an individual at 150 percent of federal poverty level earned $16,755. How are Medicare and Medicaid funded? Medicare is partially funded from payroll taxes, through the provisions of the Federal Insurance Contributions Act. The Medicare tax rate is currently 2. 9 percent-half withheld from employees’ pay and half provided by employers. High-income social security beneficiaries are required to pay taxes on their benefits, some of which goes towards Medicare. We will write a custom essay sample on Medicare and Medicaid or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page All the money goes into a trust fund and are used to pay for beneficiaries’ health services. About one-fourth of Medicare part B is paid for by premiums and co-pays. Medicaid is a federal and state government program that helps cover health care cost for low-income Americans. It’s funded through Federal Medicaid Grants and states tax funds. The total cost of the program was $458 billion in 2012. Reference: American Hospital Association (2012). Financial fact sheets: Underpayment by Medicare and Medicaid fact sheets, 2012 update. Retrieved on March 5, 2013 from www. aha. org/research/policy Lorain County Community Action Agency (2012). Eligibility Calculator: Federal Poverty Level. Retrieved on March 5, 2013 from www. lccaa. net/eligibility_calculator www. cthealthpolicy. org/pdfs/health_policy www. sharecare. com/questions